Safety management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Safety management - Assignment Example Similar form of laws and regulations regarding worker’s compensation were created through the Code of Hammurabi (Guyton, 1999). Similarly, ancient Roman and Greek dynasties even enacted several similar laws to compensate workers for their injuries incurred on the job. These laws experienced a setback in the region of Europe as feudalism was practiced there. Under feudalism, the decision of whether to compensate or not and how much to compensate for worker’s injuries was dependant on the feudal lords. In the initial period of Industrialization workers were allowed to sue their employers for injuries experienced while on the job and these law suits were fell in the category of civil lawsuits. During this period, employers and employees use to reach an agreement regarding the amount of compensation that was needed to be paid to the employer, but if both parties used to fail to reach any agreements, then employee had the option of filing a civil lawsuit. Laws for workers’ compensation that were formal in nature were first introduced in the shape of sickness and accident laws and regulations and these laws were passed in the region of Germany during 1884. Formalization of workers’ compensation rules were enacted in the region of England during 1897 and US followed their pursuit after witnessing the various benefits attained from such laws and these laws were limited to employees who were working at the federal level (Guyton, 1999). Later during the period of 1911, Wisco nsin created workers’ compensation laws for the state and this system has become the base stone of workers’ compensation laws practiced today (Guyton, 1999). The ideology of laws coined by Wisconsin was to provide compensation to workers for injuries in a timely manner based on the severity of the injury and another purpose served by this system was to limit the liability of the employers. Similar to the laws created by Wisconsin, other states

European Convention on Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

European Convention on Human Rights - Essay Example The convention enumerated the Human Rights under Section I as article 2. Right to life; Article 3 Prohibition of torture ; Prohibition of slavery and forced labor; Article 5 Right to liberty and security; Article 6 Right to a fair trial; Article 7 No punishment without law; Article 8 Right to respect for private and family life; Article 9 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion; Article 10 Freedom of expression; Article 11 Freedom of assembly and association; Article 12 Right to marry; Article 14 Prohibition of discrimination; Article 15 Derogation in time of emergency; Article 16 Restrictions on political activity of aliens; Article 17 Prohibition of abuse of rights; Article 18 Limitation on use of restrictions on rights Section III and article 19 of the convention provides for establishment European Commission of Human Rights also known as Commission and European Court of Human Rights, which are the watch dogs protecting these rights. Committee of Ministers executes orders of the court. The court not only adjudicates the issues but also renders advisory opinions. Any dispute with regard to the violation these rights are first to be dealt by the local judicial/quasi judicial agencies. After the exhausting those remedies they are referred to the Commission through Secretary-General of the Council of Europe. The commission when receives any complaint/petition investigate the matter and endeavor for amicable settlement. If the commission not able to dispose of the case it will refer to Committee of Ministers who will peruse the case and refer to the European Court of Human Rights if it is fit case to be decided by the court. The convention empowers the court to make the rules and regulations for its day-to-day functioning. The court functions as per the rules and regulation so framed. After adjudication the case will be sends to Committee of Ministers for execution of its adjudicated orders. The judgment of the court is final. The courts entertain petitions/complaints only from the commission or High Contracting Parties. The jurisdiction is exte nded to all cases with regard to interpretation and application of the convention, excluding the question relating to scope or contents of freedoms and rights defined in Section I. Such cases are to be referred by either the commission or High Contracting Parties, the court do not have suo moto jurisdiction. Due to subtle and creative interpretation of the European Court of Human Rights the European Convention of Human Rights is steadily evolving since its inception. And the court is continuously succeeding in preserving the value of the Convention (ECHR) as living instrument. The success of the Convention is judged on the basis of 1. Quality of judgment of the court. 2.the time taken to dispose off the cases and 3.effective execution of the judgments. Every year the number of cases are increasing at galloping rate. In spite of such increase the Court efficiently disposed off the cases at a quicker rate. Out of those judgments there are many important judgments, which brought drastic changes in the judiciary of the many European countries. The court has become a guiding light in protecting the Human Rights. The Court become instrumental in getting the law of the European countries on mainstream of the Convention law in protecting and maintaining the human rights. There are many citable

Ethical Issues of Clinical Ethics in the Developing World

Ethical Issues of Clinical Ethics in the Developing World Ethical Issues of Clinical Ethics And Research Ethics In The Developing World And Pakistan: Is There Any Solution? Zoheb Rafique Abstract: Health research plays an important role in addressing the inequities in human development and health, but in order to achieve these objectives, research should be based on ethical principles and sound scientific knowledge. Although it is accepted fact that bioethics play a pivotal role in health related research in the developing countries, much of recent debate has focused on the controversies surrounding internationally sponsored research and it has taken place largely without the adequate participation of developing countries. The relationship between the ethical guidelines and regulations, and also indigenously/locally sponsored and public health research is not adequately explored and so needs further exploration. Discussion Globally, there are wide inequalities in the economic development, in health outcomes, in burden of diseases and it is certain that the accelerating course towards globalization, without requisite safeguards and the protection of human rights, will only worsen the health inequalities. The funding of research in the developing countries has been the subject and debate of much attention recently. The forum for global health research has indicated that less than 10 % of the world’s research resources are earmarked for 90 % of the health problems. Recently, there was considerable debate regarding ethical conduct and the reviewing of health related research, but this debate has mostly taken place among the bioethicists and researchers in the industrialized countries. The view points of public health researchers and practitioners from the developing countries have been underrepresented. Research needs to respond to the community needs and also national priorities, and development of a national research agenda in the developing countries must be firmly grounded in the process of priority setting. However a more difficult challenge is to involve communities themselves in the research questions and to link their research to their development. Pakistan, being a poor country, has very limited health care resources. Treatment options for individual patients and between patients for free and subsidized treatments are common ethical dilemmas. Thus, prioritizing illnesses and people is an enormous ethical challenge and a very common part of every day medical practice in Pakistan. A review of published discourse on ethics in Pakistan reveals several general trends. These include a focus on ‘medicine’ as defined by formal western medical practice, delivered by physicians only. There is no pursuit of ethics as a focus of the work of other health professionals. The physician-authors of papers, the types of journals where papers have been published, and the phy sician dominant mode of health care, especially curative health care, in Pakistan make this understandable. Research ethics have not been captured in the published papers in Pakistan. This is an area of great importance that has escaped notice of the national thinkers and policy-makers. The conduct of appropriate and ethical research in international settings has been the focus of recent international reports. Ethical review committees, institutional review boards, and other national mechanisms to protect human subjects need to be discussed and put into place in Pakistan, as may be the case in other developing countries. Additional work is required to explore this important area within the context of the developing world. (1). The vital links between clinical and research ethics and human rights are perhaps of even greater significance in developing countries, where human rights are frequently ignored and violated. Conducting research in hierarchical, traditional countries such as P akistan adds yet another dimension to the difficulties in assuring that it is done in an ethical manner; an â€Å"indigenous† layer of cultural norms makes it even more of an uphill task, but it is a task that we are morally bound to shoulder. The historical and social construct of the Pakistan culture, the socioeconomic realities (with similarities to other countries in this region) and some of the deeply rooted values and customs pose challenges that are specific to this part of the world. We who live here know them, and only we can address them. Perhaps the most important factor that places human subjects at risk in this part of the world is the magnification of â€Å"power differentials† inherent in hierarchical societies such as Pakistan. This difference is particularly pronounced in the interactions between physicians and scientists and those they take care of or enroll in research projects. In Pakistan, scientists and physicians constitute the â€Å"elite† section of society. They are by and large the â€Å"English-Speaking†, affluent, highly educated minority in a society where the majority of those they deal with in their professional lives are â€Å"Urdu-Speaking†, poor, generally illiterate or misinformed and disadvantaged in many other ways. (2). Local researchers trained within the country have no concept of research ethics. There is a growing awareness that research cannot progress without better research ethics systems in developing countries. At the close of the last century several of the international agencies involved in funding health research, including WHO, tried to seriously examine the role of health research as an important contributor to sustainable human development. They also attempted to assess how governance of research at national, regional and global levels be made more effective and efficient. Ethical practice in health care and research is not only needed to ensure equity in health care and r esearch, but also to project individuals and communities from unnecessary risks and harm. (3).We can make clinical research more ethical in Pakistan by following all the International guidelines regarding clinical research ethics. Health research can play a crucial role in improving national and global health by developing and evaluating interventions and by exploring strategies that can empower individuals to alter unhealthy behaviors. However, health research involves human subjects and such individuals might be harmed by their participation in research. Accordingly, a strong system of ethical review is needed to enhance the protections of the rights and welfare of human subjects. Also, to enhance the public trust in research activities, investigators need to subscribe to a strict code of ethics that equals the highest standard of respect for human rights. This framework thus places ethics at the very core of a country’s programs for health and development. (4). There are f ive key ethical principles of ethical research that appear across the ethical codes of research institutions and associations. These are a) informed and voluntary consent; b) confidentiality of information shared; c) anonymity of research participants; d) beneficence or no harm to participants; and e) reciprocity. Researchers are expected to obtain informed consent from all those who are directly involved in research or in the vicinity of research. This principle adheres to a larger issue of respect to the participants so that they are not coerced into participation and have access to relevant information prior to the consent. Usually consent is obtained through written consent forms, and necessary elements of consent are identified by the review committees. These usually include prior information on key elements of research such as purpose, procedures, time period, risks, benefits, and a clause stipulating that participation is voluntary and the participants have the right to withd raw from the study. The principles of confidentiality of information shared and Anonymity of Research participants is also concerned with offering respect and protection to research participants through assurance of confidentiality of information shared and anonymity by not revealing the identity of the individuals and institutions involved. Typically anonymity is provided through the use of pseudonyms. The principles of Nonmaleficence, Beneficence and Reciprocity bounds the researchers to provide the participants with an outline of the risks and benefits involved to the participants in the study. The principle of reciprocity requires that the researchers consider actively ways through which participants could be compensated for their time and effort. Typically information about risks and benefits are expected to be provided in summary in the consent form and/or in a brief write up attached with the consent form. These principles and procedures of an ethical engagement with a resear ch study are laid out with the best of intentions to protect participants from malpractices and breach of ethics. However, the approach is taken from a mainly clinical medical research perspective with a concomitant view of epistemology and ontology. Hence, it is assumed that there is a well stated hypothesis which is to be tested, the relationship between the researcher and researched is clearly divided and bounded, and it is possible to outline the potential risks and benefits in some detail prior to the study. (5).The two salient concerns of public-health ethics in our Pakistan case are social justice as a background motivation and accountability as the primary operational objective. The formation of Pakistan’s NBC resulted from PMRC’s active involvement in documenting the under-distribution of global health research benefits to populations in LMICs (low and middle income countries). While this disparity might be seen as a failure of social justice on a global scale , redressing the 10/90 gap is in part a matter of domestic social justice, i-e, of how the benefits and burdens of social cooperation are distributed within each Sovereign State. Closing the gap would require governments of LMICs, such as Pakistan, to participate in dramatically increasing the amount of health research undertaken for the benefit of their own populations. Ensuring accountability for the conduct of this research with human subjects requires that protocols undergo independent ethical review. (6). A systems perspective will enable research stakeholders to improve their understanding and implementation of a national health research system (HRS) in order to improve health outcomes and health equity. Knowledge produced by health research, if disseminated widely, is a global public good. Knowledge contributes to the policies, activities, and performance of health systems, and to the improvement of individual’s and population’s health. The process of conducting research ethics and utilizing knowledge is a highly complex one. One glaring symptom of the current weakness of HRS across countries is that the research process and the policy process tend to exist in different worlds, with the result that research often has a limited impact on policy. Researchers and decision-makers tend to interact only around the â€Å"products† of their processes-for example, the results of a study for the researchers and a set of priorities for the decision-maker. Clearly, more attention needs to be given to establishing and maintaining ongoing links between the two words and, as noted previously, taking stock of the non-linearity of the research-policy-practice processes. (7). Bleak and confusing as the field may be, the last few years have been a watershed in international bioethics and the heightened debate has pushed ethical issues surrounding health research in developing countries into the limelight. The challenge is to develop sound plan for exp anding this ethics debate to larger issues of the global justice and equity, and to make the process as participatory and democratic as possible. The main goal in all these activities should be reduction of the global inequalities in health. Most of public health related problems in South Asia and their immediate causes are related to distal factors such as illiteracy, poverty, societal and gender inequities. The underlying issues must be understood to develop meaningful and sustainable solutions. (8).This will take time, but this is the only way to bring about true change in ethics of international health research. References Adnan A. Hyder and Sarah Nadeem. Health Ethics in Pakistan: A Literature Review of Its Present State. J Health Popul Nutr. 2001, 19(1): 6-11. Farhat Moazam. Research and developing countries: hopes and hypes. East Mediterranean Health Journal. 2006, Vol. 12 (Supplement no. 1): 30-36. Mohammad Afzal. Health research in the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. East Mediterranean Health Journal. Vol. 14: 67-73. Mohammad Abdur Rab Et Al. Ethical Practices for Health Research in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of the World Health Organization: A Retrospective Data Analysis. Plos one. 2008, Vol. 3(5); e2094. Anjum Halai. Ethics in Qualitative Research: Issue and Challenges. Edqual Working Paper. 2006, Quality no. 5: 1-13. Adnan A. Hyder Et Al. Integrating ethics, health policy and health systems in low-and middle–income countries: case studies from Malaysia and Pakistan. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2008, 86(8): 606-611. Tikki Pang Et Al. Knowledge for better health-a conceptual framework and foundation for health research systems. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2003, 81(11): 815-820. Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta. Globalization, Structural Adjustments and Public Health in South Asia: What does it mean for International Networking in Health Research and Researcher Training? 2001, 1-23.

Ibsens Ghosts Vs. Aristotles Poetics Essay -- essays research papers

Ibsen’s Ghosts, although a relatively modern drama, maintains many classical elements of tragedy as defined by Aristotle and championed by the ancient Greek playwrights and poets. One element of displayed prominently in this case is character. Aristotle believed that there were four main elements to a good tragic hero: 1) the character must be good, 2) decorum, 3) the character must be true to life, and 4) constancy within the characters demeanor and actions. The tragic hero in Ibsen’s Ghosts, Mrs. Alving, fits into these criterion, yet Ibsen also strays from Aristotle’s conventions. â€Å"The character will be good if the purpose is good.† (pg. 27), according to Poetics. Ibsen attempts to create a good character in Mrs. Alving. Although she makes many mistakes and her judgments lead to the ultimate tragedy her intentions are good. â€Å"Yes, I was swayed by duty and consideration for others; that was why I lied to my son day in and day out.† (Ghosts; pg. 29) She loves and wants to protect her son and to do so she feels she must shelter him from the truths of his father. â€Å"I want my boy to be happy, that is all I want. Mrs. Alving’s goal is to purge herself and her loved one’s from the past and the guilt which she feels for hiding the sins of her husband and therefore her family name. â€Å"I had been taught about duty, and the sort of thing that I believed in so long here. Everything seemed to turn upon duty-- my duty, or his duty-- and I am afraid I made your poor father’s home unbearabl...

Colonial Differences from North to South Essay

During the 1700’s, many colonies began to show their true differences with one another. Although the colonies were settled by English origin only, the regions became two distinct societies within years. Of the colonies, the Chesapeake and the New England region were strongly diverse. The Chesapeake and the New England regions differed in the 1700’s because of religious debates that had occurred, different motives that were placed when going to the New World, and the different economies that had developed within the colonies. First, religious debates became a huge distinguishing factor in the two regions. During the 1700’s, Maryland was considered to be a Catholic Haven in the Chesapeake region. Founded by Lord Baltimore in 1634, Maryland quickly became the rescue place for Catholic-English men and women whom faced execution from Protestant England. Faced with death, the Catholics of Maryland stood behind the Act of Toleration that was passed in 1649. In John Winthrop’s document, â€Å"A model of Christian Charity†, he describes how each man needs to come together for religion. God Almighty in his most holy and wise providence hath so disposed of the condition of mankind†¦ we must knot together in this work as one man. †(Document A). In Maryland’s Act of Toleration, the statute guaranteed all toleration to Christians. With the act, Maryland could be Catholic without a word being said. Unlike Maryland, The New England region had nothing to hide with religion. New England was mainly Puritan, spanning out of Calvinism. Predestination and â€Å"visible saints† were just two of many popular phrases used in the Puritan religion. Puritans believed in being predestined for heaven or hell when a said person was born. Also, Puritans had the decision to be Separatists and Non-Separatists. Many Puritans were Non-Separatists, meaning they wanted to reform the Church of England but not completely break away from it. Along with Non-Separatists, Separatists were also common. Separatists were groups of people that wanted to completely break away from the Church of England. One of the most famous groups of Separatists was the Pilgrims. In the end, the colonies were very different religion and the differences in religion molded America’s freedom of religion. Next, another factor that made the two regions different, were the motives that were placed going to the olonies. In the Chesapeake region, the Virginia Company was immediately put in place when they had arrived in Virginia. The Virginia Company was a joint stock company that had one motive in America; gold. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, England was craving for outside profit and America was the answer. In John Smith’s document about Virginia, he describes what life was like revolving around gold. â€Å"There was no talk, but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, load gold. † (Document F). Although the gold process was almost a complete disaster within Jamestown, the colony became the first permanent settlement. But, in the New England region, the English men and women were migrating to the New World for completely different reasons. First, the Separatists of England that were living in Holland to avoid royal English rule, departed to America. The Separatists, later known as Pilgrims, set off on the Mayflower. The original plan was to land off of the coast of Virginia. However, the Mayflower eventually made land fall in the New England region. Living off the land and poor, the Pilgrims became friends with local Native Americans and later, made their own government and set the foundation for the New England colony. After the Massachusetts Bay colony was formed, the main motive of the colony was to build it full of life and families. As quoted in the â€Å"Articles of Agreement†, â€Å"2. We intend that our town shall be composed of forty families, rich and poor. † (Document D). Known as the â€Å"Great Migration†, around twenty thousand Puritans migrated to the New England region from England. John Porter created a large list of Emigrants that were bound for New England. A family decided to migrate and John Porter recorded it: â€Å"1. Joseph Hull, of Somerset, a minister, aged 40 years old. 2. Agnes Hull, his wife, aged 25 years. . Joan Hull, his daughter, aged 15 years old. Etc. † (Document B). Many young families migrated from England to receive freedom of religion and break away from the clutches of royal England. Between gold, religious freedom and the â€Å"Great Migration†, the New England and Chesapeake had many different reasons for migrating to the New World. Lastly, the two regions became two separate worlds when economies began to develop. The Chesapeake region was known for one thing, and that was tobacco. Tobacco was vital to the colony’s economic foundations. A rich man’s crop, tobacco was very labor-demanding. When indentured servants rebelled, African slaves were put to use and the Chesapeake became home to slaves. As well as labor, tobacco sparked plantations and the need for land. When slaves were imported, this became the splitting factor between the north and south. However, New England, with its’ cooler falls and winters, could never plant tobacco, especially with the historic New England â€Å"stony† soil. The â€Å"stony† soil prevented any farmers from successfully planting a lot of plants. New England’s economy thrived on shipbuilding, fishing, commerce and trading. The region also contained dense forests, helping the shipbuilding industry skyrocket. Also, the economy was very organized and everything affected it. In the document of â€Å"Wage and Price Regulations in Connecticut†, they discuss the prices and wages being regulated so that the people of the colony can understand their religious callings. â€Å".. in the interim recommends that all tradesmen and laborers consider the religious end of their callings which is that receiving such moderate profit as may enable them to serve God and their neighbors with their arts and trades comfortably.. †. (Document E). In the New England colony, everything was interconnected, including religion, economy and politics. The Chesapeake’s hot, humid weather enabled the farms to grow tobacco to form their economy. But, New England’s cooler weather enabled their workers to focus on shipbuilding, trading, and even religion. In conclusion, the two regions faced many differences within their cultures when compared. Their religions, motives, and economies were a few of the distinguishing factors. As the colonies prospered in their own individual ways, the differences grew larger and became two different societies.

George Washington’s Farewell Address

George Washington and Thomas Jefferson were the first and the third presidents of the United States, respectively and both were established presidents in their own ways. In George Washington's Farewell Address he advised Americans to not get entangled within foreign countries' problems and conflicts and to not have everlasting alliances and treaties. Washington also did not like the idea of having diverse political parties, and he also stressed the magnitude of religion and morality.Thomas Jefferson, in his first Inaugural Address states that a superior government ill be able to permit its citizens to be well mannered, but at the same time let them organize themselves in what they desire to do. Jefferson also says that all principles will never change. Although they were both highly respected and regarded to as some of the greatest presidents in American history they didn't always have the same opinions on what would be best for the growing nation.In his Farewell Address, George Wash ington mentions that Americans should mind American business and not be concerned with foreign conflicts because the United States had Just won a ery expensive war for their independence and already owed money to their new ally the French. This was a warning to all Americans because during that time America was still young, and it had many of its own problems to solve. Jefferson was also not in favor of getting involved with foreign entanglements.As Napoleon advanced into Europe, Jefferson decided to remain neutral in the conflict by banning all European trade from American Ports because of the British forces firing upon the Chesapeake. As harassment from Barbary pirates began to become an issue Washington was ersuaded to build up an American Navvy in order to protect those in harm and to retrieve the captured sailors. Thomas Jefferson's approach to the pirates was a little different from Washington's in that he chooses to implement a blockade of Tripoli and other Barbary ports in 1 801; these actions forced him to reconsider his advocacy of budget cuts for the American navy.These actions then allowed the American naw to become respected by the rest of the world, because it proved that they wouldn't be pushed around by anyone. Jefferson and Washington were both in favor of not etting involved in foreign entanglements as they showed through these actions and in their Addresses. George Washington specifically addressed the issue of diverse political parties. Washington thought political parties and political party dominance were very bad ideas.He wanted it to be about the best candidate being elected, not about two parties taking over and preventing all other parties from having an opportunity of being nominated. He said this because he believed it was dangerous to have power blocs arise from these different opinions. These different parties, the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists were beginning to surface had different thought which in turn caused many h eated debates and a lot of aggression towards the opposite parties. However Jefferson knew that political parties were necessary, he voiced the thought in this famous quote.Jefferson said that there is basically no way to escape the differing opinions and political parties in a successful and free nation, due to the nature of man to disagree and to form their own opinions on how they think the nation should be run. Jetterson and his close triend James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson and Washington both had different opinions on the subject of political parties, with Washington strongly disapproving of it and Jefferson being a founder of one of the political parties it is safe to say they didn't share the same mindset on this topic.George Washington was instrumental in stressing the importance of morality and religion. In his Farewell Address Washington that through experience religious values in a government are important. This is referring to the succes sful European nations that have an established religion integrated into their government. Jefferson agreed hat religion was important for people to be able to express and to believe in freely, however Jefferson was very vocal in trying to solidify a position between the church and the state.He was himself a Christian man and placed several god-like statements in the Declaration of Independence. Washington disagreed with Jefferson on the separation of church and state however, they both agreed religion was important in the new nation. In both of their addresses they discussed the issues involving the new government such as the issue of making alliances with other nations or becoming involved in foreign entanglements.Both Washington and Jefferson agreed that for the nation to become successful they must keep away from any foreign affairs regarding the fact that the nation was still developing and if war was to occur it would leave them more susceptible to being taken over. Each of the highly regarded presidents discussed the formation of political parties. Washington thought that political parties would destroy the new system of government. Jefferson on the contrary knew that political parties were inevitable; he then went on, with another respected colleague James Madison, to create the Democratic-RepublicanParty. The subject of religion and morality was discussed greatly in this period of time. Washington believed that for the government to be successful religion must be involved in all of the important branches such as the court systems. Jefferson on the other hand wanted to create a â€Å"wall of separation between church and state. † Although both of the presidents were extremely instrumental in founding and establishing this great nation, they didn't always agree with each other, which isn't bad because to create a good story you must have all points of view.